Adventures in the Roman Cavalry Part 4

August 2010.
It is several years since I wrote anything on our cavalry experiment, and much has happened since the last instalment. Many members and even enthusiasts from abroad have enjoyed sitting on horses, and experiencing Roman saddles. But we have a hard core of riders who ride in public displays. In the same way while we have used many horses over the years, some horses are always with us. And this is mirrored in the way we have tried out new ideas and equipment, but our core values remain the same.


AIMS
I wanted to learn to ride as a Roman. I wanted to understand the Roman saddle, and how a solid wooden framed saddle could work on more than one horse. I wanted to use horses of the correct size and conformation to learn about speed of manoeuvre and the capacity of Roman cavalry. And I wanted to ride as a Roman carrying the correct equipment without compromise.

Rather than using hired riders for shows we wanted our own Comitatus riders with a commitment to understanding Roman military equipment and how it works on horseback. These riders needed to spend time and money getting their skills and equipment to a very high standard. Back in 2005 I aspired to doing maybe three cavalry shows per year if we were lucky. In 2010 we are doing twice that, and ride most weekends privately.


PROGRESS REPORT, AUGUST 2010

Riding
When I first started riding at Claire Chamberlain’s yard in Howden I am sure everybody there thought I was a little mad. Who was this strange person who always rode in strange clothing day and night in rain or shine? No stirrups, funny saddles, no reins even. “John the Roman” was close to being “John the nutter”. But Claire gave me not just good advice but the time and space to find my own way without restrictions imposed by convention. Over the years I am pleased to say she has fallen for Roman riding.

This is not the place for an in-depth discussion on how to train riders or horses. Natural horsemanship techniques soon seem to develop a Zen-like cultist mythology about them. But the rider needs to be focussed on getting the best out of themselves and the horse. The rider and horse will find their own style and means to communicate. It may not always look pretty but I trust this approach above all others. The more hours spent in the saddle the better the bond between horse and rider becomes. It is generally never the horses fault when things do not go as we would wish them, it is the riders. Although it is certainly true that some horses suit certain riders more than others.

Many people have come to our sessions wanting to ride in the Roman manner. Many have left after a time because they have no real interest in the period, or because they are unable to accept that sometimes it is not the horse but themselves that is the issue. Riding horses is a great way of teaching anybody humility. It is great to see somebody begin to pick up the posture and seat of a rider through a wet cold winter, and work through the frustrations to become a happier person in the spring. Riding can change your life in many ways and I recommend people try it at any level.


Saddles
At first Roman saddles and tack seemed a far away dream. Now we have lots of them, currently eight good saddles, one truly flexible German pad saddle, and three more good saddles on their way. Seeing good reproductions being used positively cheers me up. We are making our saddles available to others who are interested in Roman riding. Sadly there are some incredibly bad saddles being used in shows in the UK. I have seen saddles cast from resin, modern general purpose (GP) saddles with covers made for them so they look like Roman saddles, and even a cowboy saddle with horns sewn on. Often you may see a GP saddle covered in a sheep skin, or stirrups being used. There seems no excuse for his, and the public are not all stupid and deserve the highest level of authenticity.

We use two Peter Connolly “originals”. Connolly used the surviving evidence in the form of leather covers, their stitching, stretch and wear marks, as well as metal horn plates, to produce a working Romano-Celtic saddle. He produced a design based upon a solid wooden four-horned frame. The size of the horns are in part dictated by the surviving copper alloy horn plates, possibly acting as stiffeners. Some plates are of a surprising thickness perhaps suggesting they are for protection. However these protectors or stiffeners do not give an absolute indication of the angle of horns. This can be derived from sculptural evidence. Unfortunately surviving leather covers do not prove if the copper alloy plates were mounted externally or internally. On this basis perhaps they were not common features. Surviving pieces of harness fitting also give clues to the nature of harness and how the saddle was attached to the horse.

Various other attempts have been made to reproduce four-horned saddles using alternatives to the solid wooden frame, in part perhaps to justify simpler and cheaper reconstructions. Flexible padded saddles as used by Junkelmann for 1st - 2nd century cavalry simulations, without a wooden frame can produce similar wear and stretch marks as found on surviving saddle covers. The metal horn stiffener can be attached to the padded horns internally or externally, or not used at all. The fact that individual names have been found scratched or punched on to the stiffeners has been used as evidence that they were used externally.

Finds presented at the Carlisle Millennium Project conference in 2004 were found during excavations on the Castle Green between 1998 and 2001. Two saddle covers were illustrated which both showed stretch marks where they had been pressed down over a wooden frame. The covers were very worn and had both been patched many times. Overall the stitch pattern used on each cover was the same as has been found on other sites, but these covers retained trapezoidal flaps of leather, about half as deep as they were long, with the widest edges lowest when on the horse. They demonstrate that rather than just being sewn up under the saddle as originally believed, leather covers could be secured over the horns and wooden frame of the saddle. These saddle covers simply hung down the sides of the horse, even having a substantial fringed curtain of leather hanging from the lower edge. These seem to be covers from riding saddles rather than pack saddles, protecting the rider’s legs against the girth and the edge of the wooden frame. The girth strap, rather than being stitched into the saddle cover as initially thought, could be attached directly to the saddle frame giving greater stability. A piece of wood was exhibited which exactly conformed to the curved piece of the saddle frame that crossed the withers in the Connolly reconstruction. Such a design does pose questions about how much padding was used in the saddle, and how it was held in place. I suspect layers of felt were glued to the tree, and to the underside of the side boards as with some universal pattern military saddles. Our newer saddles are based on this design.

The purpose of the saddle is to lift the weight of the rider from the horse’s spine. Both the solid framed and padded styles of four-horned saddle can meet this basic requirement. However I initially believed the solid wooden frame of a four-horned saddle was inflexible, and potentially painful for a horse’s back. Each saddletree would only be able to be used on one shape of horse, and even a saddle made to fit a specific horse would cease to fit if the horse lost condition on campaign. This would result in pressure sores, calloused and thickened skin. But experience has altered my view. A solid Roman saddle with a wooden frame can be made to fit most horses, with the addition of good padding in the form of a saddlecloth or furs. The same was true of the solid wooden framed military saddles of the 19th century, when cavalrymen were taught how to fold their saddle cloths to fit their horse and saddle, especially on campaign. The Roman saddle is a military saddle and that should come as no surprise.

My saddle horns lack the copper alloy horn stiffeners, and at different times I have broken both the rear horns. However the design of the saddle could allow the leather cover to be lifted off, or the stitching to be cut open, and the horn replaced in less than two hours. The copper alloy stiffeners certainly seem important to re-enforce the horns and make them stronger. The rear horns are particularly important in bracing the rider against powerful thrusts, and when riding uphill. This may explain why the rear copper-alloy stiffeners can stretch completely across the rear of the saddle, giving optimum re-enforcement. My saddle is a light 4.8kg design, easily carried and stored, with very little padding for the riders comfort. The second saddle I used was a little larger, at 5.2 kg, while Connolly’s initial reconstruction was 6.8kg. The variance partly being due to size, the copper alloy stiffeners or lack of them, and the amount of stuffing in the saddle.

Padded versions of these saddles made without a wooden frame often have a metal bar towards the front of the saddle for stability. Reconstructions are generally very heavy at 11-12kg, and larger than examples based on a wooden frame. The weight of the rider forces the seat of the saddle downward and the horns lock around the rider’s legs.

While this gives a very secure seat, the rider will find it difficult to get out of the saddle if the horse falls so some movement in the saddle is to be preferred. The wooden frame seems by far the more usable of the two designs and the Carlisle finds certainly seem to prove its validity. It is a good design, but it is time consuming to produce and the horns are intrinsic weaknesses. Initially the saddle feels as if the rear horns do not offer sufficient support. Indeed, the angle that the saddle sits on the horse is very important. If the rear of the saddle is not high enough, the rider’s full weight is constantly hammering on the two rear horns. In a short time the rider becomes confident enough to lean well out of the saddle, instinctively riding with the bent legs and downward pointing toes familiar from Roman monuments. However long periods of riding can be very hard on the rider’s legs, and serious cramp can result in having to be lifted out of the saddle.

We have always worked closely with the Saddlers Den in Southport and together we now market and sell wooden framed Roman saddles with their own tack. I also make my own breast and breaching straps, bridles and halters, often in a field with limited time.


Tack
The girth and other tack can vary between reconstructions. A split girth holds the saddle in place more securely. The saddles do not fit as securely as modern saddles, and breast and breaching straps help hold the saddle in place. A surcingle, a simple strap around both horse and saddle, can be used to fasten the saddle more securely if needed. Reconstructions of tack from the 1st and 2nd centuries are generally highly decorated with copper alloy fittings, often tinned or silvered, based on archaeological finds. Few such fittings date from the 4th or 5th centuries.

However throughout the Roman period there was large scale use of amulets on horse tack made from the bases of shed antlers. The denticulated edge is no more than the natural coronet of the burr, channelled and perforated by the presence of blood vessels in the velvet during growth. One or more holes drilled in the disc allowed for suspension from the harness. The most common design is the phallus, perhaps to ward off the evil eye, and the use of antler may suggest that it had some special talismanic significance.

Triplet straps hanging from the front and rear of the saddle are very useful for securing equipment, and may have helped secure the leather cover to the wooden frame.

The horse is directed by weight distribution, leg pressure, spurs, verbal commands and primarily the bit in the horse’s mouth held by the reins and bridle. Every horse needs different degrees of direction. Spurs are not needed on all horses, and this suggests that not all Roman cavalrymen would wear them. Romans used either the snaffle bit of Celtic origin not unlike a modern bit, or the potentially severe curb bit. The Romans could also use the hackamore to increase leverage on the horse’s jaw. Various metal examples have been discovered, yet many more could have been made of leather or even dried grass and left no archaeological trace.

A simple hackamore would have no bit, and the 1st century tombstone found in 2005 in Lancaster seems to show a bitless bridle. This system is useful for young horses, or those with sensitive mouths, but is generally not associated with Romans.

Today metal hackamores could be covered with sheepskin for the horse’s comfort, and it is possible that some Roman hackamores would have been covered also. The rider has to learn to neck rein, using one hand to control the horse by exerting pressure on the horse’s neck with the reins, or even at times his shield.


The Steppe Saddle
In the 4th century the steppe saddle was introduced into the west by the Huns and their allies. It is a simple and strong design. It is possible that some saddles were built with a one piece wooden tree, but reconstructions are made of no more than four pieces of wood joined and shaped to transfer the weight of the rider to the horse’s sides. In time this saddle would develop into the medieval saddle and the modern Portuguese and Spanish saddles. The proportions of the pommel and cantle can only be deduced from surviving metal decoration. The earliest such fittings from Europe are a set of early 5th century curved and triangular-shaped gold sheet mounts from Mundolsheim, Alsace. These suggest a very high-fronted saddle, used to display wealth and status. Lower status riders could have used lower fronted saddles, for which rare, small and functional fittings have been found from later dates.

The steppe saddle does not need integral padding and can be left as just bare wood, weighing 6.4kg. It sits on several layers of wool or fur to protect the horse. It does not need breast or breaching straps, although they may be of use over long distances and rough terrain. Coming from a four-horned saddle, the Roman rider is initially concerned about sliding out of the “side door”. They try and hook their legs under the front cantle to secure themselves in the seat, as they would hook their legs under the front horns of the four-horned saddle. But the steppe saddle is not designed for this and the position soon becomes very uncomfortable. Instead the rider must use a straight leg and a very deep seat when cornering. Such a position is relatively easy on the rider’s legs and can be maintained for long periods of time.


The Stirrup
But this saddle is a design that naturally benefits from the invention of the stirrup. The rider can continue to ride with a straight leg, but with the addition of long stirrups giving greater stability. They can raise themselves in the saddle to cushion the effect of the movement of the horse whilst engaged in horse archery, important in a steppe culture. And perhaps most useful of all, the stirrup allows the horse to be easily mounted.

The issue of just how Romans mounted their horses is unresolved. Contemporary books mention mounting from either side of the horse. Fences and infantry are both good mounting blocks, and in armour it is just possible to mount while stationary with the assistance of a spear. Rope attached to the spear and used to carry the weapon over the shoulder can make a simple mounting step. A strong loop of rope over the front horns can also make a useful “step” for mounting, but there is no evidence of such devices.


Horses
Much has been written on the size of the Roman horse. Ann Hyland has considered the various ancient breeds potentially available to the Roman cavalry. To generalise, there is a consensus that Roman military horses in the west were around 13 to14 hands, with some as tall as 15 hands. Roman monuments certainly show us a small stocky animal. Recent work on bone evidence suggests that actual military horses were what we would call ponies, robust specimens of 13.2 hands, with small regional differences. Certainly it is safe to assume that strong animals were needed to carry armoured riders over considerable distances, and speed would have been a secondary consideration. Junkelmann used Camargue horses for his reconstructions, while native British breeds similar to the Fell or Dartmoor pony would be best adapted to the British climate. Size is crucial in determining speed of manoeuvre, and the effectiveness of Roman cavalry.

Many people seem to have their own favourite breeds of horse, sometimes based their own on cultural identity or nationalistic preference. I remember once being cornered by a vociferous women telling me Romans all used Fell ponies, and it was the only true Roman breed. The Fell is in fact the result of an influx of swift Galloway blood. Others point to the Friesian recorded by Tacitus. Yet this has been refined using Arab and Andalucian blood. Rather than considering various breeds I prefer to consider the four basic types of post-glacial horse. Pony Type 1 from north-west Europe stands around 12 to 12.2 hands, and corresponds to the modern Exmoor. Pony Type 2 from northern Eurasia is around 14 to 14.2 hands and corresponds to the modern Highland Pony. Horse Type 3 was a desert horse from central Asia, equating to the Akhal-Teke at around 14.3 hands. Horse Type 4 from western Asia was a small 12 hand fine boned horse like the modern Caspian. Modern breeds developed from these foundation types. I like to think of Roman horses in Britain being similar to the Type 1, with a dash of Type 3, and perhaps a small amount to Type 4, with the Huns introducing Type 2.

At Claire’s yard there are around 20 horses at any one time, and selecting Roman style horses is a favourite pastime. In the early days after riding several horses including polo ponies and thoroughbreds, I settled on a gelded Irish Cob of 14.2 hands to act the part of my first Roman war horse. This breed has a reliable temperament, can easily carry a man in armour, and has strong hooves. Murph was grumpy, lazy and belligerent, and never scared. It took around three months to teach each other how to do the show. Horse archery is perhaps the hardest part of the show, and I spent hours at the walk doing the cantabrian cycle, then the trot, before finally shooting the bow at the canter. Our horses all need to learn how to neck rein to allow us to ride one-handed in a western style.

The Roman-style cob showed a typical speed of 10kph at the walk, 15-20kph for the trot, 40kph for the canter, and 56kph at the gallop. Trotting without stirrups is uncomfortable for any length of time, and accuracy with missile weapons is difficult, so generally manoeuvres were carried out at the canter. Such a speed makes the rider and horse a difficult target, while allowing them time to accurately use their weapons.

Murph is an excellent weapons platform, but not all riders can get him moving. Last October I started training a new 14 hand stallion called Hal. At 16 years he isn’t young, and had done very little work for the past 10 years. He is very, very nervous, and at first didn’t like his bridle, the mounting block or me. When I first picked up a weapon he bolted.

In fact if I pick up anything new he’s off. But he really looks the part, is honest and lightning fast. I have given myself three years to make him a good Roman cavalry horse, and his first year is very encouraging.

Our horses are unshod to toughen up their hooves, and they live outside for most of the winter. The horse has to become used to the Roman saddle, as well as the rider’s armour and equipment. After eight months work Hal was just about ready for his first show, but the sound of my voice over the PA system scared him and we were too excited. I think another season will see him improve dramatically. When I drop the reins Hal accelerates rapidly making horse archery exciting, and the cantabrian circle very tricky. All of which proves every horse is different and needs their own approach.


Horse Archery
It is possible that many second line units never used bows, or perhaps used them stationary. The right-handed rider should be able to lose the arrow forwards to the right or left of the horse’s head. This means he must pull his right shoulder backwards and stretch forward with his left arm. However draw length may be limited, especially while wearing rigid scale, in turn limiting the power of the shot. Shooting to the rear, the famous Parthian shot, in many ways seems easier. The left arm is extended over the horse’s rear and while the right holds the string to the ear. The draw length is maximised, but care must be taken to ensure that the left shoulder does not lie too far within the bow. If it does the string may hit the left shoulder, robbing the shot of its power.

The rider starts with the arrow held under tension on the bow with the left hand. He rides unusually with the reins in the right hand. The rider approaches the target at approximately 40kph and puts the horse into a right turn. When the horse is balanced he drops the reins, relaxes, looses the arrow, finds the reins, and turns to the right to come back to the starting point. Riders recreating Mongolian horse archery with thumb rings, stirrups, shoot to the right side of the bow, using an eastern release, and are able to shoot and “reload” on the move. They carry spare arrows in their left hand resting against the state of the bow. After the release they can use their right hand to pull down a new arrow on to the string, to the right side of the stave.

The way eastern arrows are fletched means there is no right or wrong way to place the arrow on the string. Riders can stand in their stirrups to minimise the rise and fall as the horse travels over the ground. Roman riders at the canter without stirrups, shooting in a western style, using western fletchings, take longer to nock a new arrow to the string.

There seems to be a mystic around horse archery, but I believe it is a matter of practice rather than skill. While working in the sand school can never reproduce the conditions in a grassed arena with a noisy crowd and nervous rider, it is invaluable. Practice, practice and practice some more.


Riders
Riders have to find a way of carrying their spatha, shield, bow, arrows, lance and sometimes javelins, either hanging from the saddle or themselves. Comitatus riders carry the spatha from a waist belt, secured by a scabbard slide. Often the bow case is tied to the same belt, or is attached to another waist belt. The bow case is secured with two ties, just in case one breaks. When carrying the bow in the bow case it is liable to bounce around hitting the leg. Carrying the spatha over the case helps secure it. The case can be pulled out from behind the spatha, and twisted around so the bow points forward to ease it’s withdraw. When replacing the bow the case is twisted so the top laths point towards the rear, and the case is secured once more behind the spatha. The late 6th century Strategikon states, riders must be able to hang their lance from their shoulder while drawing the bow and placing an arrow on the string. They must then be able to replace the bow and ready the lance. Put simply riders must learn to look like Roman soldiers, comfortable with their kit and weaponry.

Riding carrying a large heavy shield is difficult. Carvings, such as the Arch of Galerius, suggest that the shield could be carried on the left arm using a series of straps. Many modern interpreters have followed this method, going further by padding out the interior face of the shield, so it rests more comfortably on the left leg. However there are no archaeological finds to back up this method. Practice shows a large oval shield can be carried using the horizontal handle with the boss protecting the left hand. The horse can be turned to the left using the reins in the left hand, while the shield can be pressed on to the horse’s neck to help it turn to the right. The shield can be rested on the cavalryman’s left foot when not actively in use. However Maurice describes the ideal cavalryman as carrying the kontos, the 4m long lance, and bow. These weapons require the use of both hands. Maurice believed you could not draw a bow effectively while carrying a shield. However Comitatus use a small shield, 450mm in diameter, strapped to the left forearm. The small shield allows the kontos to be held in both hands, and allows for the use of bow even when using a western release. The shield boss is retained to allow the shield to be carried in a more conventional manner. Procopius mentions the use of small shields strapped to the upper left arm. Agathias mentions cavalry serving under Narses at Casilinum using shields, spear, bows and arrows.

Modern riders not un-naturally want to ride with as little as possible, for their sake as well as their horse. They will soon start discarding equipment if given a chance. Armour is uncomfortable, helmets are hot and shields hard to carry. Riders need to understand what we are trying to achieve, and be prepared to buy, make and gather equipment. Most of what we use belongs to the individual, but some of the saddles and helmets belong to the group. Because our riders also work hard in infantry displays, they will find weekends particularly demanding.

We are under a duty to the public and ourselves to use weapons with the correct balance, weight and heft, with means using sharp weapons. Blunt re-enactment weapons have the incorrect heft, and those that use them use them incorrectly, often parrying with the edge of their “blade”. Carrying sharp weapons is potentially more dangerous but there is a discipline in using weapons and it is a good one to learn. We use our sharp weapons against a variety of targets, generally wooden for missiles and melons for hand combat weapons. We use capped and training weapons against fellow members. We don’t put on mock battles or pretend to fall over dead, but rather stage various training exercises. A difference which I believe the pubic appreciate.

Riding also means falling off occasionally. On a Roman horse you don’t have far to fall, and thankfully we have never suffered serious injury. But we have had a few broken bones over the years, but broken ribs are often held securely in padding and armour. If they come off riders are encouraged to walk to the side of the arena, before collapsing in a heap.

This is easier said than done since you are generally disorientated, in shock, embarrassed or angry. But it helps if you have a simple instruction to follow, if only you can remember it. That way we don’t upset members of the public with a nervous disposition. My greatest fear is a horse tripping at speed while we are doing horse archery. Without reins or stirrups and our concentration on the bow, we would stand little chance if something went wrong.

Some people get very upset that Comitatus allows women to portray Roman soldiers, and it is of course true that women did not fight in the Roman army. And nor did aging, overweight, soft, weekend warriors.

So all we ask is that all our members look convincing as Roman cavalrymen and comfortable using their weapons and equipment. Female legs can be hidden by trousers and leg wraps, and padding is a constant feature when wearing armour. Cloaks can soften the contours of the body, and modern hair styles can be covered. But the late Roman army would display some fine long hair styles, and perhaps we should do the same.


The Shows
While most of our riding is in a sand school, which can be great fun, we also put on professional presentations for the public. The show needs to last around 30 minutes, building up slowly to a big finish. The public need to associate and empathise with individual horses and riders. The show must not be fully scripted, and the commentator must adapt to the crowd reaction, or lack of it. If I ride and commentate the public like hearing my own instructions to the horse, and it makes the show very immediate and even intimate, but I must not swear over the microphone.

The shows are made up of very distinct elements which aim to educate and entertain. These elements can change from show to show. Each arena has its own dynamic we need to take into account and planning the layout is very important.

Riders should ride within themselves to make sure shows are safe. Certainly in 2010 many shows have been very much on the bleeding cutting edge of what can safely be achieved. It has been very exciting for the riders, horses and crowds. Generally by the end of July our displays are getting very good. By the August BH we can really damage each other using a variety of weapons.

Comitatus puts on shows demonstrating various crafts, infantry shows, cavalry shows and mixed shows. But always our cavalry and infantry work as one. Our cavalry dismount and display as infantry, and our infantry act as targets for our cavalry. The infantry continually work to pick up weapons and keep the arena safe. I firmly believe for successful cavalry displays you need not just horses, but unselfish riders, hard working infantry and a tented encampment displaying full range of equipment. We take the opportunity to display different interpretations of four horned saddles as well as steppe saddles.

Most of our equipment is made within the group. Costs are kept to a minimum and new members find it easy to acquire good quality equipment. It is very important that the belt sets our riders wear reflect their status and match the rest of their kit. Most of our helmets are gilded. Buckles are covered in gold or silver, and are generally very fashionable for Britain towards the end of the 4th century. It is difficult and expensive to achieve a high status look, and in some ways it runs against what we normally try and achieve. It is easier to appear as a relatively common soldier and do it well, than try to recreate a high status soldier. So I am pleased that some of us stick to propeller stiffeners, copper alloy fittings, and basic wool tunics.

The Taifali were probably recruited from a former barbarian tribe from the east, who had been re-settled in the Po valley. Certainly some would like to see us as the embodiment of steppe culture in Britain, with all the associated Arthurian connotations. While I dismiss such fantasies it is impossible to love horse archery and not be interested in steppe culture. In the evenings it is fun to bring out riding coats, silver fly brooches, tall riding boots etc. But this was a Roman regiment equipped by Romans and eastern influences must be laid low during public hours.

The Concesti Roman helmet, found in an early 5th century Hunnic grave, with Hunnic riding coat and boots.

Riders have their own personal dateline, even back story to tell the public. Generally they come from the late 4th century, but with my Deurne helmet, deposited around AD 319 and made earlier than that, my own preference is for the early 4th century. Roman equipment could have a relatively long life span, so both my horse and his rider sometimes wear cavalry sports equipment. But occasionally Comitatus does shows which allow us to use different equipment.


Roman Cavalry through the Ages
The public tend to have a very Hollywood view of Roman soldiers. While popular films can generate interest in the Romans, they generally present a very subjective view, devoid of authenticity and using the Roman army as a medium to carry all sorts of messages. In my life time I have seen Roman soldiers presented as the disciplined iron men of a neo fascist state mirroring Hitler’s Germany or Mussolini’s Italy. Then, as western imperialists, imposing themselves on freedom loving tribes. Now it seems Roman soldiers are axe fodder for babes in face paint. It is not always a popular view, but I feel we have a duty to educate as well as entertain, and so it is sometimes useful to show the development of the Roman cavalryman through time. This allows us to explain in a limited way about his changing conditions of service, and explode a few dearly held myths.

It still seems to come as a shock to some who should know better that the Roman army developed over time. That simple, case hardened blades develop into beautiful pattern welded blades, and that iron helmets are replaced by increasing numbers of helmets covered in silver and gold. Those ill disciplined early soldiers, prone to mutiny with dubious routes of promotion, turn into a more modern professional army, one covered in gold silver and amazing clothing. And that there is no “barbarisation” of the Roman army, and in fact the army had always adopted foreign equipment and recruited non-Romans. It would be interesting to explore all of these statements, but I don’t have the room here.

So it is sometimes useful to field Roman cavalrymen and explain their development through time. I am lucky in that I dress up for a living and have access to a well stocked equipment room. We could put out Roman cavalry from the Republic to the fall of Byzantium, but it is generally better to concentrate on just a few important periods in Roman British history. The public find it easy to understand the concept of the early Roman period, the middle and the late. The public can see for themselves how a spear and javelin armed man can develop into a multi-role soldier using kontos and bow. Almost like Vegetius, they can see how the cavalryman develops into the perfect horse soldier. Of course this means that some of us will be involved in several changes of kit and equipment over the weekend and somebody will need to carry it all around.

Some members of the public, even heritage organisations, like to perceive post Roman Britain as full of Arthurian knights charging around in plate armour. Or even an Arthur equipped as a late Roman armed with a recurve bow, a kontos and other steppe equipment. The romantic crowd-pulling power of such a view swamps the probable reality that steppe equipment would always have been rare in Britain, and that gilded equipment such as helmets would be broken up for bullion value.

Using archaeological and written evidence we are left with a javelin armed generally armoured cavalryman on a pad or steppe saddle, without a helmet, fighting in a heroic culture. Surely a truth far better than any fictional tale?


The Hippika Gymnasia, Arrian’s Ars Tactica
Any show displaying the skills of the Roman cavalryman is likely to draw heavily on the Ars Tactica, commissioned by Hadrian and written when Arrian was governor of Cappadocia AD 131-137. Arrian describes various weapons and formations, the cavalry sports and their various exercises. These are very carefully stage managed performances in a prepared arena, involving two teams with their standards, using special clothing and armour. The signifier carrying the standard dictated the pace, timing and direction of each part of the show.

The teams would charge from concealment, or at least into the arena, lead by dragon or snake headed standards. Ammianus Marcellinus writes of the draco being purple and mentions them making a hissing sound in the wind. Reconstructions are based on the only fully preserved example found in the Limes fortress of Niederbieber, from 3rd century. Made of copper alloy it looks like some sort of scaled lizard measuring 30x12x12 cm. Made of two embossed sheets, the gilded upper one overlapping the lower tinned one, attached by 5 rivets on each side. At the base of the neck the sheets form a circular flange, riveted together by 2 more rivets. A crest is attached to the top of the head. It is possible that some sort of whistle was attached inside the lower jaw through two 20 mm holes to produce a hissing sound. But primarily it is an indicator of wind direction, useful for archery.

Various movements and charges are described, but are hard to interpret. The epistrophai involved two files facing towards each other and charging together in front of the tribunal, without weapons and without collision. This would have taken perfect timing and co-ordination.

During the testudo a line of horses was formed angled back from the tribunal to allow the shield of one rider to cover the head of the next, to make a shielded wall. Out of the testudo individual riders would ride out to perform the petrinos, probably shouting while throwing javelins at all angles, and defending themselves from attack all while performing a complicated series of direction charges. Ann Hyland provides an interpretation of the movement. The cantabrian gallop probably involved both teams circling in opposite directions throwing their weapons to the left at a certain point at the same moment. Rather than lighter javelins, a whittled spear was used of much greater weight. Once again timing was everything, and being a member of a team from any cavalry unit would have marked the rider and his horse as being exceptional.

Currently we cannot reconstruct these exercises, since we don’t have the numbers or the arena. I honestly believe the skills and the timings would come with time. However the biggest issue would be throwing weapons at fellow riders. We cannot take the chance of hitting the horses or causing them any form of distress. British opinion would not allow it in a public performance. However it is interesting to note that the public are happy to watch jousting. Compared to a speeding couched lance hitting an on-coming horse at around 100 kph during a joust, the impact of a javelin would be relatively light.

However the public like to see the use of sharp weapons against wooden targets, and blunted training weapons against infantrymen. Weapons can be thrown to the left and right, the front and the rear. The cantabrian circle can be employed against an infantry testudo. And cavalry can charge at stationary fellow riders, hitting them sharply on a shield before speeding away in a typical “pass” manoeuvre. Care must be taken not to ram the target horse, and the whole exercise takes practise. The public can begin to understand how horses can be de-sensitised to shields, noise and close quarter combat. Various different weapons can be demonstrated, including the swords, axes and maces. Sports equipment from the early and middle Imperial period can be used, and the face helmets and horse decorations never fail to impress the public. Face helmets also help conceal feminine features. The competitive nature of our displays can also help engage the public.


CONCLUSION
It is difficult to put together a convincing Roman infantry impression. But it is much harder to put together a cavalry impression which by its very nature has to be fit for purpose. It takes work to make a saddle and tack work on a horse. All the equipment worn by the rider and the horse will be bounced around at speed, and your life depends on it. We have put out seven well equipped cavalrymen on more than one occasion this season. The first time we put out seven riders it took us 52 minutes to tack up the horses and get ready for the arena. But we soon reverted to a more normal 30 minutes for us all to get in the saddle. We have more riders and we have the saddles. But we are limited by the number of Roman style horses we have available. And not many clients can afford cavalry shows, although the cost is around a quarter of a jousting show. The moment of impact, using the whole weight of the horse.

Riding has taught me a great deal and not just about Romans. I now enjoy all historical riding especially the Greek and Hellenistic period, but that is another story. Societies as well as individuals need to develop, and making Roman cavalry a reality has helped Comitatus grow as well as myself. A Greek cavalrmany from around 350 BC based on the writings of Xenophon.

I positively like to encourage others to sample the experience, and for some it really does make a dream come true. Equestrians are interested by the saddle, the tack and style of riding, although I am always surprised at those who cannot cope without stirrups. I feel as if new riders benefit from the lack of stirrups. They centre their weight and balance, and concentrate on the horse. The moment they put weight into the stirrups they become less centred, lose focus and balance, and give the horse many different mixed messages all at once. Infantrymen placed on a horse can get an idea of just how physical riding can be. More than one legionary has assumed the horse does all the work and we just sit there. But after a gentle hour in the saddle they complain of aching for days. Riding can be very hard work, and riding in a tight exciting show can be exhausting. A three shows a day for three days can be positively painful for some.

We are making wooden framed four horned saddles available to everybody at hopefully around £500 each including breast and breaching straps. Far cheaper than expensive £800 German pad saddles, and cheaper than 3000 euro Deurne helmet reproductions. Hopefully the terrible examples some individuals use will soon be a thing of the past, and more people can enjoy riding as Romans.



FOOTNOTES
1 - Connolly (1987) 7-28 and Bishop (1988) 105-108
2 - Junkelmann (1992) 34-74
3 - Bishop (1988) 104
4 - Winterbottom (2006) 7-11
5 - Winterbottom S. (2006) 7
6 - Congdon J.A. (1864) 101-103
7 - Bishop and Coulston (2006) 120-123
8 - MacGregor (1985) 107
9 - Junkelmann (1992) 31
10 - For illustrations see Bull (2007) 15 and 28. However the illustration reconstructing the cavalryman shows a bridle with a bit.
11 - Evans (2004) 23-26
12 - Schnitzler 1997 86
13 - Evans (2004) 23
14 - Vegetius, Epit. I.18
15 - The English-speaking world measures the height of horses in hands, measured at the highest point of an animal's withers where the neck meets the back, chosen as a stable point of the anatomy, unlike the head or neck, which move up and down. One hand is 4 inches (10 cm). Intermediate heights are defined by hands and inches, rounding to the lower measurement in hands, followed by a decimal point and the number of additional inches between 1 and 3. Thus a horse described as 14 hands is 140cm.
16 - Hyland (1990) 11-29
17 - Dixon and Southern (1992) 163-173
18 - Johnstone (2004)
19 - Junkelmann (1990) 44-48
20 - Maurice, Strat. 1.1
21 - Bishop and Coulston (2006) 130
22 - Maurice, Strat. 1.1
23 - Maurice, Strat. 2.8
24 - Coulston (1985) 281 states this is impossible.
25 - Procopius 1.1.12
26 - Agathias, 2.8.8
27 - Ammianus Marcellinus 15.5.16
28 - Hyland A. (1993)118-128.




BIBLIOGRAPHY
I am often contacted regarding reading lists.
Not all of these are referred to in the article above, but they have been of use over the years.


Agathias, The Histories translated by Frendo J. (Berlin 1975).

Ammianus Marcellinus The Later Roman Empire translated by Rolfe J. C. (Harvard 1952).

Anonymous The Anonymous Byzantine Treatise on Strategy, in Three Byzantine Military Treatises translated by Dennis G.T. (Washington 1985).

Bishop M.C. (1988) “Cavalry equipment of the Roman army in the first century AD” in Coulston J.C., Military Equipment and the Identidity of Roman Soldiers. Proceedings of the Fourth Roman Military Equipment Conference, BAR International Series 394, Oxford, 67-195.

Bishop M.C. and Coulston J.C.N. (1993) Roman Military Equipment (2nd edition) (Oxford 2006).

Bull S.B. (2007) Triumphant Rider, The Lancaster Roman Cavalry Tombstone (Lancaster 2007).

Congdon J.A. (1864) Cavalry Compendium (Philadelphia; J.B. Lippincott & Co. 1864).

Connolly P. (1987) “The Roman Saddle” in Dawson M. Roman Military Equipment: the Accoutrements of War. Proceedings of the Third Roman Military Equipment Seminar, BAR International Studies 336, Oxford 7-28.

Coulston J.C. (1985) “Roman Archery Equipment” in Bishop M.C. The Production and Distribution of Roman Military Equipment. Proceedings of the Second Roman Military Equipment Seminar, BAR International Series 275, Oxford, 220-366.

Croom, A. (2001) “A Ring Mail Shirt from South Shields Roman Fort” Arbeia Journal Vol 6/7, 55-60.

Dixon K.R. and Southern P. (1992) The Roman Cavalry (London and New York 1992).

Evans C.E. (2004) “The Saddle in Anglo-Saxon England and its European Background”, in In the Saddle, An Exploration of the Saddle through History, ed. L.Gilmour (London 2004) 21-30.

Feugere M. (1993) Weapons of the Romans (Stroud 2002).

Goethert K.P. (1996) “Neue romische Prunkschilde' in Marcus Junkelmann Reiter wie Statuen aus Erz (Mainz 1996) 115-126.

Hyland A. (1993) Training the Roman Cavalry from Arrian’s Ars Tactica. (Stroud 1993).

Hyland A. (1990) Equus, The Horse in the Roman World (New Haven and London 1990).

James S. (2004) Excavations at Dura-Europos 1928-1937 Final report VII The Arms and Armour and Other Military Equipment (London 2004).

Allason-Jones L. and Miket R. (1984) “The Catalogue of small finds from South Shields Roman Fort”, in The Society of Antiquaries of Newcastle Upon Tyne Monograph Series No. 2, ed. J. Philipson (Gloucester 1984).

Johnstone C.L.2004 “A Biometric Study of Equids in the Roman World” (Ph.D. thesis, Uni. of York 2004).

Johnson, S. (1980) “A Late Roman helmet from Burgh Castle” Britannia 11, (1980) 303-12.

Jorgensen L., Storgaard B. and Andersen J.S. (2003) eds. “The Spoils of Victory” (Copenhagen 2003)

Junkelmann M. (1990, 1991, 1992) Die Reiter Roms Volumes I, II and III. (Mainz 1990, 1991, 1992).

Junkelmann M. (1996) Reiter wie Statuen aus Erz (Mainz 1996)

MacGregor A. (1985) Bone Antler Ivory and Horn (Beckenham 1985).

Maurice Strategikon translated by Dennis G.T. (Philadelphia 1984).

Procopius History of the Wars translated by H.B. Dewing (London 1914-28)

Robinson H. R. (1975) The Armour of Imperial Rome (London 1975).

Schnitzler B. (1997) “A L’Aube du Moyen Age, L’Alsace Merovingienne” in Les Collections du Musee Archaeologique, Vol 5, Strasburg 86-87.

Sim D. and Ridge I. (2002) Iron for the Eagles (Stroud 2002).

Stephenson I.P. and Dixon K.R. (2003) Roman Cavalry Equipment (Stroud 2003).

Vegetius: Epitome of Military Science. translated Milner N.P. (Liverpool 1993).

Winterbottom S. (2006) “On the fringes of empire: recent finds of saddle leather from Carlisle” Newsletter 24 of the Archaeological Leather Group (London 2006) 7-11.